Federalism Class 10 Social Science — Revision Notes

TL;DR: Federalism is a system of government that divides power between a central authority and constituent state or regional governments. It allows for unity…

Federalism is a system of government that divides power between a central authority and constituent state or regional governments. It allows for unity in d

Key Features of Federalism

• Two or more levels of government exist with independent powers and authority
• Constitution clearly defines powers of each level and cannot be unilaterally changed
• Citizens are governed by laws of both central and state governments
• Independent judiciary resolves disputes between different levels of government

Federalism in India

• Union government handles defense, foreign policy, taxation, and currency
• State governments manage education, agriculture, police, and local governance
• Concurrent list includes subjects like trade, taxation, and criminal law shared between Union and states
• Three-tier system includes Union, states, and local bodies like municipalities and gram panchayats

Advantages of Federalism

• Accommodates cultural and linguistic diversity by allowing regional autonomy
• Brings government closer to people through decentralized decision-making
• Prevents concentration of power and protects against authoritarian rule
• Allows states to experiment with policies suited to local conditions

Challenges in Federal Systems

• Disputes between central and state governments over resource sharing and jurisdiction
• Poor coordination and cooperation between different levels of governance
• Financial imbalance where states lack resources for assigned responsibilities
• Regional interests sometimes override national unity and development

Key Terms

• Federalism: System dividing power between central government and constituent state governments
• Union list: Subjects under exclusive control of the central government like defense and foreign policy
• State list: Subjects under exclusive control of state governments like education and police
• Concurrent list: Subjects where both central and state governments can make laws

What federalism is, and what it is not

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. Usually a federation has two levels of government: one for the entire country, responsible for subjects of common national interest, and the other at the level of provinces or states, which looks after much of the day-to-day administering of the state.

The contrast is with a unitary system, where either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. In a unitary system the central government can pass orders to the provincial or local government. In a federal system the central government cannot order the state government to do something, because the state government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government.

Notice that having states or provinces is not by itself federalism. What makes a system federal is that both levels of government are separately answerable to the people, and that neither can simply command the other in the areas assigned to it.

Coming together and holding together — two routes to a federation

Federations are formed in two very different ways, and the difference shapes how much power the states end up with. The first route is coming together, in which independent states come together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. The United States, Switzerland and Australia are of this kind.

In these federations all the constituent states usually have equal powers and are strong in relation to the federal government.

The second route is holding together, in which a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent states and the national government. India, Spain and Belgium are of this kind. Here the central government tends to be more powerful in relation to the states, and very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers — some units are granted special powers.

This distinction is what explains an apparent puzzle about India: why the Union Government is stronger than the states and why states such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram have special provisions. India was not assembled from previously independent states choosing to join; it was a large country distributing power downwards, and its constitutional arrangements reflect that.

The key features of federalism

Six features are given in the chapter, and questions frequently ask for any three or four of them with explanation.

• There are two or more levels, or tiers, of government.
• Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
• The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution, so the existence and authority of each tier is constitutionally guaranteed.
• The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
• Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.
• Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
• The dual objectives of federalism are to safeguard and promote the unity of the country, while at the same time accommodating regional diversity. Two aspects are crucial for its success: mutual trust between the levels of government, and agreement to live together.

How the Constitution divides powers in India

The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government and the State Governments, and later a third tier was added. It declared India a Union of States, and specified a three-fold distribution of legislative powers.

• The Union List includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency. It contains 97 subjects. They are included in this list because a uniform policy on these matters is needed throughout the country, and only the Union Government can make laws relating to them.
• The State List contains subjects of state and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation, comprising 66 subjects. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to them.
• The Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government and the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession, comprising 47 subjects. Both can make laws on these subjects, and if their laws conflict, the law made by the Union Government prevails.
• Subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists are called residuary subjects — computer software is the example given, since the makers of the Constitution could not have anticipated it. The Union Government has the power to legislate on these.
• Not all states in the Indian Union have identical powers. Some enjoy a special status: Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram have special provisions owing to their peculiar social and historical circumstances.
• There are also units of the Indian Union that enjoy very little power. These are areas too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any existing State, and they are called Union Territories, where the Central Government has special powers.
• The sharing of power between the Union and the States is basic to the structure of the Constitution, and Parliament cannot change this arrangement on its own. Any such change has first to be passed by both Houses of Parliament with at least a two-thirds majority, and then has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total states.
• In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. Both levels of government also have the power to raise resources by levying taxes, which secures their financial autonomy.

How federalism is practised — language and Centre–State relations

The chapter's most important argument is that the real success of federalism in India lies not only in the constitutional provisions but in the nature of democratic politics that has followed them.

• The creation of linguistic States was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our country. Between 1947 and now several old States vanished and new ones were created, and boundaries were changed to create States where people speaking the same language lived in the same State.
• Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography — Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Telangana are of this kind.
• At first many feared that creating States on the basis of language would lead to the disintegration of the country. Instead it has made the country more united and has made administration easier.
• On language policy, the Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language, but Hindi is the mother tongue of only about forty per cent of Indians, so there were provisions to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 22 languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
• The use of English for official purposes was to have stopped in 1965. Many non-Hindi speaking States demanded that its use continue, and in Tamil Nadu this movement took a violent form. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.
• On Centre–State relations, for a long time the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States, and the Central Government would often misuse the Constitution to dismiss State governments controlled by rival parties, undermining the spirit of federalism.
• This changed after 1989 with the rise of regional political parties and the era of coalition governments at the Centre, which led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments. A Supreme Court judgment also made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss State governments in an arbitrary manner.

Decentralisation and the third tier

When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation.

• The basic idea is that a large number of problems and issues are best settled at the local level, because people have a better knowledge of problems in their localities and better ideas about where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently. It also allows people to participate directly in decision making.
• A major step was taken in 1992, when the Constitution was amended to make the third tier of democracy more powerful and effective.
• It is now constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
• Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and in the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
• At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
• An independent State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
• The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies, though the nature of sharing varies from State to State.
• In rural areas the local government is called panchayati raj. The gram panchayat is the decision-making body for the whole village, with ward members called panch and a president or sarpanch, directly elected by the adult population of the village.
• The gram panchayat works under the overall supervision of the gram sabha, of which all the voters in the village are members. It meets at least twice or thrice a year to approve the annual budget of the gram panchayat and to review its performance.
• A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form a panchayat samiti or block or mandal, and all the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla parishad, whose chairperson is its political head.
• In urban areas, municipalities are set up in towns and municipal corporations in big cities. The political head of a municipality is the municipal chairperson, and in a municipal corporation the corresponding officer is called the mayor.

Worked Examples

• Belgium moved from unitary to federal — Belgium changed its constitution in 1993 to shift from a unitary to a federal system, showing that a country can accommodate diversity by redistributing power rather than by breaking apart.
• Computer software as a residuary subject — It appears on none of the three lists because the makers of the Constitution could not have foreseen it. Residuary subjects fall to the Union Government.
• English retained alongside Hindi after 1965 — Use of English for official purposes was to end in 1965, but non-Hindi States objected, with violent protest in Tamil Nadu, and the Central Government agreed to continue it — federalism working through negotiation.
• The gram sabha supervises the gram panchayat — All voters of the village are members of the gram sabha, which meets two or three times a year to approve the budget and review performance — direct democracy checking the elected body.

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Confusing federal with unitary. In a unitary system the central government can order the sub-units; in a federal system it cannot, because each level has its own constitutionally guaranteed jurisdiction.
• Saying Hindi is the national language of India. The Constitution did not give the status of national language to any language; Hindi is the official language, and 22 languages are recognised as Scheduled Languages.
• Placing education or forests in the State List. Both are on the Concurrent List, where the Union and the States can both legislate and the Union law prevails in case of conflict.
• Assuming residuary subjects go to the States. They fall to the Union Government, which is one of the features making the Indian federation a holding-together type with a stronger centre.
• Writing that all Indian States have identical powers. Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram have special provisions, and Union Territories have far less power than States.
• Claiming Parliament can change the division of powers by itself. Any change requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses and then ratification by the legislatures of at least half the States.
• Treating decentralisation as the same thing as federalism. Federalism is the division between the Union and the States; decentralisation is the further transfer of power to a third tier of local government, given constitutional force by the amendment of 1992.
• Confusing the gram sabha with the gram panchayat. The panchayat is the elected decision-making body; the gram sabha is the body of all voters that supervises it.

Where This Shows Up in Real Life

Why linguistic reorganisation strengthened rather than broke the country

When States were reorganised so that people speaking the same language lived in the same State, many feared it would encourage separatism and lead to the disintegration of India. The opposite happened. Recognising the claim to linguistic identity removed a major grievance, made administration easier because government could be conducted in a language people actually spoke, and left regional identity with no reason to become a demand for separation. This is the clearest practical demonstration of federalism's dual objective — accommodating diversity in order to preserve unity.

Coalition politics as a check on the Centre

The constitutional provisions on Centre–State relations did not change after 1989, yet the practice changed a great deal. When a single party held power at the Centre and in most States, the Union Government often dismissed State governments run by rivals. The rise of regional parties and the necessity of coalition governments meant the Centre depended on regional allies and could no longer act so freely, and a Supreme Court judgment made arbitrary dismissal difficult. The lesson is that federalism depends on the nature of democratic politics as much as on the written text.

Reservation of one-third of local seats for women

The 1992 amendment made it mandatory to reserve at least one-third of all positions in local bodies for women, along with reservations for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. As a result more than ten lakh elected women representatives entered local government. This is decentralisation used deliberately as an instrument of social change: it brought into public decision making a group that had been largely absent from it, at the level closest to everyday life.

Why local problems are best solved locally

A State government sitting in a distant capital cannot know which village handpump has failed, which stretch of road floods, or where a school building is unsafe. People living in the locality have that knowledge and a direct interest in acting on it. Decentralisation therefore improves both the accuracy of decisions and the speed with which they are taken, and it gives ordinary citizens a realistic opportunity to participate directly rather than only through a vote once in five years.

Board-Style Questions with Model Answers

What is federalism? State any four key features of a federal system of government. (5 marks)

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country, usually with one government for the entire country and another at the level of provinces or states. Among its key features, first, there are two or more levels or tiers of government. Second, different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration. Third, the jurisdictions of the respective levels are specified in the constitution, so the existence and authority of each tier is constitutionally guaranteed. Fourth, the fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government, as such changes require the consent of both levels. In addition, courts have the power to interpret the constitution and act as an umpire in disputes between the levels, and the sources of revenue for each level are clearly specified to ensure financial autonomy.

Distinguish between coming together and holding together federations with examples. (5 marks)

In a coming together federation, independent states come together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. The United States, Switzerland and Australia are examples. In such federations all the constituent states usually have equal powers and are strong in relation to the federal government. In a holding together federation, a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent states and the national government, as in India, Spain and Belgium. Here the central government tends to be more powerful in relation to the states, and very often different constituent units are given unequal powers, with some units granted special status. India is a holding together federation, which is why the Union Government is comparatively stronger and why States such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special provisions.

Describe the three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the State Governments in India. (5 marks)

The Constitution provides three lists. The Union List includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency, and contains 97 subjects; these are placed here because a uniform policy is needed throughout the country, and only the Union Government can make laws on them. The State List contains subjects of state and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation, comprising 66 subjects, on which only the State Governments can make laws. The Concurrent List contains subjects of common interest to both, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession, comprising 47 subjects; both governments can make laws on these, but if their laws conflict, the law made by the Union Government prevails. Subjects that do not fall in any of these lists, such as computer software, are called residuary subjects, and the Union Government has the power to legislate on them.

How has the practice of federalism in India been strengthened since 1989? (3 marks)

For a long time the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States, and the Central Government often misused the Constitution to dismiss State governments that were controlled by rival parties, which went against the spirit of federalism. After 1989 there was a rise of regional political parties and the beginning of an era of coalition governments at the Centre, so that the leading national party had to enter into alliances with regional parties and could no longer disregard their interests. Around the same time a Supreme Court judgment made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss State governments in an arbitrary manner. Together these developments led to a new culture of power sharing and greater respect for the autonomy of State Governments.

What is decentralisation? Describe the main provisions of the constitutional amendment of 1992 relating to local government. (5 marks)

When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea is that a large number of problems and issues are best settled at the local level, since people have a better knowledge of problems in their localities and can participate directly in decision making. In 1992 the Constitution was amended to make the third tier of democracy more powerful and effective. It became constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies. Seats were reserved in the elected bodies and in the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. At least one-third of all positions were reserved for women. An independent State Election Commission was created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections. Finally, the State governments were required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies, though the nature of this sharing varies from State to State.

Explain India's language policy and how it helped avoid conflict. (5 marks)

The Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language, but since Hindi is the mother tongue of only about forty per cent of Indians there were provisions to protect other languages, and 22 languages are recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. A candidate in an examination conducted for the Central Government positions may opt to take the examination in any of these languages. The use of English for official purposes was to have stopped in 1965, but many non-Hindi speaking States demanded that its use continue, and in Tamil Nadu the movement took a violent form. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes. This flexibility, and the willingness to accommodate the claims of non-Hindi speakers rather than impose Hindi, is why India avoided the kind of language conflict that troubled Sri Lanka.

Assertion–Reason Questions (CBSE Format)

For each question choose: (a) both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A; (b) both are true but R is not the correct explanation; (c) A is true but R is false; (d) A is false but R is true.

Quick Self-Check

Key Terms Glossary

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Unitary government

A system in which there is only one level of government, or in which the sub-units are subordinate to and can be ordered by the central government.

Jurisdiction

The area over which someone has legally granted power; the geographical area or the subjects over which a level of government may act.

Coming together federation

A federation formed when independent states come together on their own to form a bigger unit, as in the USA, Switzerland and Australia.

Holding together federation

A federation formed when a large country divides its power between constituent states and the national government, as in India, Spain and Belgium.

Union List

The list of 97 subjects of national importance, such as defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency, on which only the Union Government can legislate.

State List

The list of 66 subjects of state and local importance, such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation, on which only State Governments can legislate.

Concurrent List

The list of 47 subjects of common interest, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession, on which both levels may legislate, the Union law prevailing in case of conflict.

Residuary subjects

Subjects not falling in any of the three lists, such as computer software, on which the Union Government has the power to legislate.

Union Territory

A unit of the Indian Union too small to become an independent State and not merged with any existing State, in which the Central Government has special powers.

Decentralisation

The transfer of power from Central and State governments to local government, given constitutional force by the amendment of 1992.

Gram sabha

The body of all voters in a village, which supervises the gram panchayat, approves its annual budget and reviews its performance.

Zilla parishad

The district-level body formed by all the panchayat samitis or mandals of a district, headed politically by its chairperson.

Scheduled Languages

The 22 languages recognised by the Constitution, from which a candidate may choose for Central Government examinations.

One-Minute Revision

• Federalism divides power between a central authority and constituent units; in a unitary system the centre can order the sub-units, in a federal one it cannot.
• Six features: two or more tiers; separate jurisdictions over the same citizens; jurisdictions specified in the constitution; no unilateral change; courts as umpire; specified revenue sources.
• Dual objective: safeguard unity AND accommodate regional diversity. It needs mutual trust and agreement to live together.
• Coming together — USA, Switzerland, Australia; states equal and strong. Holding together — India, Spain, Belgium; centre stronger, units may have unequal powers.
• Union List 97 subjects — defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications, currency.
• State List 66 subjects — police, trade, commerce, agriculture, irrigation.
• Concurrent List 47 subjects — education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, succession. Union law prevails on conflict.
• Residuary subjects such as computer software go to the Union Government.
• Changing the division of powers needs a two-thirds majority in both Houses plus ratification by at least half the State legislatures.
• Hindi is the OFFICIAL language, not the national language; 22 Scheduled Languages; English retained after 1965 following protest, notably in Tamil Nadu.
• Linguistic States were feared to cause disintegration but in fact strengthened unity and eased administration.
• After 1989 coalition governments and a Supreme Court judgment curbed arbitrary dismissal of State governments.
• 1992 amendment: mandatory regular local elections, reservations for SC, ST and OBC, at least one-third of positions for women, State Election Commissions, shared powers and revenue.
• Rural tiers: gram panchayat (sarpanch and panch) under the gram sabha, then panchayat samiti or block, then zilla parishad. Urban: municipality with a chairperson, municipal corporation with a mayor.

Syllabus reference: NCERT Class 10 Political Science — Democratic Politics II, Federalism. It follows Power Sharing and leads into Gender, Religion and Caste.

Frequently Asked Questions

How does federalism help maintain unity in a diverse country like India?

Federalism allows states to have autonomy over cultural and linguistic matters while maintaining national unity through central control over defense, foreign policy, and currency.

What is the difference between Union list and State list?

Union list contains subjects exclusively controlled by the central government like defense and taxation, while State list contains subjects exclusively controlled by state governments like education and police.

Is having states enough to make a country federal?

No. What matters is whether the sub-units have powers of their own that the central government cannot simply override. In a unitary system a country may well be divided into provinces or states, but the central government can pass orders to them and they are answerable to it. In a federal system each level has a jurisdiction specified in the constitution, both levels are separately answerable to the people, and neither can unilaterally change the fundamental division of powers. It is that constitutional guarantee, not the existence of states, that makes a system federal.

Why is India's central government stronger than that of the United States?

Because the two federations were formed by different routes. The United States is a coming together federation, in which previously independent states pooled their sovereignty voluntarily and therefore retained substantial power, with all constituent states holding equal powers. India is a holding together federation, in which a large country divided its power downwards to its constituent states. In such federations the central government tends to be more powerful, and different units may be given unequal powers — which is why some Indian States have special provisions and why Union Territories have very limited powers.

What happens when a Union law and a State law on a Concurrent List subject conflict?

The law made by the Union Government prevails. Both the Union and the State Governments are entitled to make laws on the 47 subjects of the Concurrent List, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession, because these are matters of common interest. But if their laws conflict with each other on the same subject, the Constitution resolves it in favour of the Union law. If a dispute arises over whether a subject falls within a particular level's jurisdiction, the High Courts and the Supreme Court decide.

Why did the Constitution not make Hindi the national language?

Because Hindi is the mother tongue of only about forty per cent of Indians, so declaring it the national language would have imposed the language of a minority of the population on everyone else. The makers of the Constitution instead identified Hindi as the official language and included provisions to protect other languages, recognising 22 languages as Scheduled Languages. The wisdom of this caution was shown when the planned discontinuation of English in 1965 provoked strong opposition from non-Hindi speaking States, and the Central Government's willingness to continue English alongside Hindi defused a conflict that had torn other countries apart.

More Class 10 Social Science Revision Notes

• Nationalism in Europe
• Nationalism in India
• Resources and Development
• Agriculture
• Power Sharing
• Sectors of Indian Economy

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